PERTANIKA JOURNAL OF TROPICAL AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

Sambar deer (Rusa unicolour) are native to most parts of Asia, including Malaysia, Taiwan, Indonesia, and India. Listed as “vulnerable” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List, the animal has recently been introduced into the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. Although they can easily adapt to a wide range of habitats, the population of Sambar deer in the wild has dramatically declined, and this may be attributed to poaching, illegal wildlife trade and habitat loss when jungles are cleared for development. This article provides the status and distribution of Sambar deer in Peninsular Malaysia and protection efforts to conserve this species in the country. It also highlights the potential of Sambar deer commercial farming in Peninsular Malaysia as part of the conservation programme and meeting human demand.

• Abidin, Z. Z., Abdullah, M. T., Rahman, M. A., & Yusof, E. (1991). Large mammals in Peninsular Malaysia. In R. Kiew (Ed) The state of Nature Conservation in Malaysia (pp. 173-176). Malayan Nature Society.
  
  Ali, N. A. N. G., Abdullah, M. L., Nor, S. A. M., Pau, T. M., Kulaimi, N. A. M., & Naim, D. M. (2021). A review of the genus Rusa in the Indo-Malayan archipelago and conservation efforts. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 28(1), 10-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.08.024
  
  Bartholomew, C. V., Zainir, M. I., Zalipah, M. N., Husin, M. H., & Abdullah, M. T. (2021). Wildlife hunting practices by the indigenous people of Terengganu, Peninsular Malaysia. In M.T. Abdullah, C.V. Bartholomew & A. Mohammad (Eds) Resource use and Sustainability of Orang Asli (pp. 137-153). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64961-6_10
  
  Blanchong, J. A., Robinson, S. J., Samuel, M. D., & Foster, J. T. (2016). Application of genetics and genomics to wildlife epidemiology. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 80(4), 593-608. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.1064
  
  Dai, T. Y., Wang, C. H., Chen, K. N., Huang. I. N., Hong, W. S., Wang, S. Y., Chen, Y. P., Kuo, C. Y., & Chen, M. J. (2011). The antiinfective effects of velvet antler of Formosan Sambar Deer (Cervus unicolor swinhoei) on Staphylococcus aureus-infected mice. Evidence Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2011, Article 534069. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/534069
  
  Davies, C., Wright, W., Hogan, F., & Visitin, C. (2020). Predicting deer-vehicle collision risk across Victoria, Australia. Australian Mammalogy, 42(3), 293-301. https://doi.org/10.1071/AM19042
  
  de Groot, N. G., Blokhuis, J. H., Otting, N., Doxiadis, G. G. M., & Bontrop, R. E. (2015). Co-evolution of the MHC class I and KIR gene families in rhesus macaques: Ancestry and plasticity. Immunological Reviews, 267(1), 228-245. https://doi.org/10.1111/imr.12313
  
  Department of Wildlife and National Parks (2010). Red List of Mammal for Peninsular Malaysia. Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia.
  
  Department of Wildlife and National Parks (2013). Annual Report 2013. Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia.
  
  Department of Wildlife and National Parks (2014). Annual Report 2013. Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia.
  
  Department of Wildlife and National Parks (2015). Annual Report 2015. Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia.
  
  Department of Wildlife and National Parks (2016). Annual Report 2016. Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia.
  
  Department of Wildlife and National Parks (2017). Annual Report 2017. Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia.
  
  Department of Wildlife and National Parks (2018). Annual Report 2018. Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia.
  
  Department of Wildlife and National Parks (2021). Annual Report 2020. Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia.
  
  Edinur, H. A., Hajar. C. G. N., & Abdullah, M. T. (2022). Covid-19 treatment may impact sun bear. Journal of Sustainability Science and Management, 17(3), 1-7. http://doi.org/10.46754/jssm.2022.03.001
  
  Flynn, R. W., & Abdullah, M. T. (1984). Distribution and status of the Sumatran rhinoceros in Peninsular Malaysia. Biological Conservation, 28(3), 253-273. http://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(84)90046-6
  
  Goossens, B., Salgado-Lynn, M., Rovie-Ryan, J. J., Ahmad, A. H., Payne, J., Zainuddin, Z. Z., Nathan, S. K. K. S., & Ambu, L. N. (2013). Genetics and the last stand of the Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis. Oryx, 47(3), 340–344. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605313000045
  
  Habib, B., Saxena, A., Bhanupriya, R., Jhala, Y. V., & Rajvanshi, A. (2020). Assessment of Impacts of National Highway 715 (Earlier NH 37) on Wildlife Passing through Kaziranga Tiger Reserve, Assam. Wildlife Institute of India.
  
  International Union for Conservation of Nature (2024). Sambar deer. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?query=sambar%20deer&searchType=species
  
  Jędrzejewski, W., Carreno, R., Sanchez-Mercado, A., Schmidt, K., Abarca, M., Robinson, H. S., Boede, E. O., Hoogesteijn, R., Viloria, A. L., Cerda, H. Velasquez, G., & Zambrano-Martinez. (2017). Human-jaguar conflicts and the relative importance of retaliatory killing and hunting for jaguar (Panthera onca) populations in Venezueala. Biological Conservation, 209, 524-532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.03.025
  
  Jhala, Y. V., Qureshi, Q., Gopal, R., & Sinha P. R. (2011). Status of the tigers, co-predators, and prey in India, 2010. Wildlife Institute of India.
  
  Karanth, K. U., Goodrich, J. M., Vaidyanathan, S., & Reddy, G. V. (2010). Landscape-scale, Ecology-Based Management of Wild Tiger Populations. Global Tiger Initiative, World Bank, and Wildlife Conservation Society.
  
  Kawanishi, K., & Sunquist, M. E. (2004). Conservation status of tigers in a primary rainforest of Peninsular Malaysia. Biological Conservation, 120(3), 329-344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2004.03.005
  
  Kawanishi, K., Rayan, D. M., Gumal, M. T., & Shepherd, C. R. (2014). Extinction process of the sambar in Peninsular Malaysia. DSG Newsletter, 26, 48-59.
  
  Kummoo, W., Teampanpong, J., Utsa, P., Paansri, P., Suksavate, W., Duengkae, P., & Prompat, S. (2020). Impact of highway on vertebrate roadkill in Nam Nao National Park, Thailand. Biodiversitas, 21(11), 5540-5549. https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d211163
  
  Leslie Jr, D. M. (2011). Rusa unicolor (Artiodactyla: Cervidae). Mammalian Species, 43(871), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1644/871.1
  
  Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. (2006). Biodiversity in Malaysia. NRES.
  
  Moriarty, A. (2004). The liberation, distribution, abundance and management of wild deer in Australia. Wildlife Research, 31(3), 291-299. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR02100
  
  Munisamy, B., Kamaruddin K. N., Saaban, S., Ibrahim S. N., Topani, R., Kamaruddin, Z., Mohammed A. A., Ismail, H. I., Manan, A. B., Razak, M. F. A. A., Arshat, N., Patah, P. A., Ngau, C., Kawanishi, K., & Clements, G. R. (2022). Release of captive-bred Sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) and post-release survival rates in Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Wildlife and Parks, 37, 49-67.
  
  Nogueira, S. S. C., & Nogueira-Filho, S. L. G. (2011). Wildlife farming: An alternative to unsustainable hunting and deforestation in Neotropical forests? Biodiversity and Conservation, 20, 1385–1397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0047-7
  
  Nur-Farahiyah, A. N., Kumar, K., Yasmin, A. R., Omar, A. R., & Camalxaman, S. N. (2021) Isolation and genetic characterization of canine parvovirus in a Malayan Tiger. Frontiers in Veterinary Sciences, 8, Article 660046. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2021.660046
  
  Parham, P., & Moffett, A. (2013). Variable NK cell receptors and their MHC class I ligands in immunity, reproduction and human evolution. Nature Reviews Immunology, 13(2), 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri3370
  
  Parham, P., Norman, P. J., Abi-Rached, L., & Guethlein, L. A. (2012). Human-specific evolution of killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor recognition of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 367(1590), 800-811. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2011.0266
  
  Ramsay, M., Brunner, H. G. & Djikeng, A. (2019). Leveraging genomic diversity to promote human and animal health. Communication Biology, 2(1), Article 463. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-019-0708-8
  
  Rintelen, K. V., Arida, E., & Häuser C. (2017). A review of biodiversity-related issues and challenges in megadiverse Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries. Research Ideas and Outcomes, 3, Article e20860. https://doi.org/10.3897/rio.3.e20860
  
  Stafford, K. J. (1997). The diet and trace element status of sambar deer (Cervus unicoloi) in Manawatu district, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology, 24(4), 261-271. https://doi.org/10.1080/03014223.1997.9518123
  
  Ten, D. C. Y, Jani, R., Hashim, N. H., Saaban, S., Abu Hashim., A. K., & Abdullah, M. T. (2021a). Panthera tigris jacksoni population crash and impending extinction due to environmental perturbation and human-wildlife conflict. Animals, 11(4), Article 1032. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11041032.
  
  Ten, D. C. Y., Edinur, H. A., Jani, R., Hashim, N. H., & Abdullah, M. T. (2021b). Covid-19 and the Malaysian Zoo preventive measure readiness. Journal of Sustainability Science and Management. 16(1), 46-54. https://doi.org/10.46754/jssm.2020.01.006
  
  Tensen, L. (2016). Under what circumstances can wildlife farming benefit species conservation? Global Ecology and Conservation, 6, 286–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2016.03.007
  
  Timmins, R., Kawanishi, K., Giman, B, Lynam, A., Chan, B., Steinmetz, R., Baral, H. S., & Kumar, N. S. (2015). Rusa unicolor; The IUCN red list of threatened species 2015. IUCN Red List. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/41790/85628124
  
  United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2024). World Wildlife Crime Report: Trafficking in Protected Species 2024. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
  
  Watter, K., Thomas, E., White, N., Finch, N., & Murray, P. J. (2020). Reproductive seasonality and rate of increase of wild sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) in a new environment, Victoria, Australia. Animal Reproduction Science, 223, Article 106630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2020.106630
  
  Xin, L. Q., Assyuhada, M. G. S. N., Rasudin, N. S., Ghafar, N. A., Haslindawaty, A. R. N., Ten, D. C. Y., Saaban, S., Edinur, H. A., & Abdullah, M. T. (2024). Characterisation of human-wildlife conflict and casualties caused by wildlife attacks in Peninsular Malaysia. IIUM Medical Journal Malaysia, 23(1), 83-90. https://doi.org/10.31436/imjm.v23i01.2283
  
  Xin, L. Q., Mat-Ghani, S. N. A., Rasudin, N. S., Ghafar, N. A., Kari, Z. A., Hashim, A. K. A., Abdullah, M. T., & Edinur, H. A. (2022). Prevalence of wildlife crimes in Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal, 74(4), 591-598.