Lightning is a naturally occurring phenomenon that involves a sudden electrostatic discharge caused by an imbalance between electrically charged cloud regions. Although lightning is visibly amazing, its impact can be dangerous and damaging, which many studies have carried out lightning-generated electric field measurements to assess the electrical discharge features. This study conducted the lightning-generated electric field measurement on the College of Engineering building rooftop at UNITEN from August 2019 to March 2020. A total of 115 negative lightning return strokes waveforms were recorded using a parallel plate antenna. A comparison was made between the data measured in the tropical and non-tropical regions, such as UTM, UPM, Sweden, USA, and Germany, in terms of the characteristic, mainly on the negative return strokes parameters. It was observed that data measured in the same region, either tropical or non-tropical, were consistent or almost similar. On the contrary, the results indicated a significant difference between these two regions on the negative return strokes parameters characteristics. The zero-to-peak and fast transition 10–90% rise time, as well as width dE/dt pulse at half peak value in the tropical region, were observed higher than the non-tropical region. Meanwhile, the zero-crossing time and slow front amplitude relative to the peak in the non-tropical region were averagely longer as compared to the tropical region. Therefore, dissimilarities in the characteristics of negative return stroke parameters could be attributed to the variation in the meteorological conditions, geographical locations, and climatic affection.

• Ahmad, N. A., Fernando, M., Baharudin, Z. A., Cooray, V., Ahmad, H., & Malek, Z. A. (2010). Characteristics of narrow bipolar pulses observed in Malaysia. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 72(5-6), 534-540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2010.02.006

• Arshad, S. A. M. (2017). Characterization of lightning-generated electric fields and development of automated measuring system for cloud-to-ground lightning in Malaysia (Doctoral dissertation). Universiti Putra Malaysia. http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/70239.

• Baharudin, Z. A., Fernando, M., Ahmad, N. A., Mäkelä, J. S., Rahman, M., & Cooray, V. (2012). Electric field changes generated by the preliminary breakdown for the negative cloud-to-ground lightning flashes in Malaysia and Sweden. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 84, 15-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2012.04.009

• Bodewein, L., Schmiedchen, K., Dechent, D., Stunder, D., Graefrath, D., Winter, L., Kraus, T., & Driessen, S. (2019). Systematic review on the biological effects of electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields in the intermediate frequency range (300 Hz to 1 MHz). Environmental Research, 171, 247-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.01.015

• Brohan, P., Kennedy, J. J., Harris, I., Tett, S. F. B., & Jones, P. D. (2006). Uncertainty estimates in regional and global observed temperature changes: A new data set from 1850. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres, 111(D12), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006548

• Calvo-de la Rosa, J., Locquet, A., Bouscaud, D., Berveiller, S., & Citrin, D. S. (2020). Optical constants of CuO and ZnO particles in the terahertz frequency range. Ceramics International, 46(15), 24110-24119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2020.06.190

• Chi, G., Zhang, Y., Zheng, D., Lu, W., & Zhang, Y. (2014). Characteristics of lightning activities in Potala Palace region of Tibet. In 2014 International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP) (pp. 1992-1994). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICLP.2014.6973455

• Cooray, V., & Lundquist, S. (1985). Characteristics of the radiation fields from lightning in Sri Lanka in the tropics. Journal of Geophysical Research, 90(D4), 6099-6109. https://doi.org/10.1029/JD090iD04p06099

• Cooray, V. (1997). A model for negative first return strokes in lightning flashes. Physica Scripta, 55(1), Article 119. https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-8949/55/1/024

• Cooray, V. (2015). Charge generation in thunderclouds and different forms of lightning flashes. In An Introduction to Lightning (pp. 79-89). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8938-7_6

• Cooray, V., & Fernando, M. (2009). Lightning parameters of engineering interest. In V. Cooray (Ed.), Lightning Protection (pp. 15-96). The Institution of Engineering and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1049/PBPO058E_ch2

• Cooray, V., & Lundquist, S. (1982). On the characteristics of some radiation fields from lightning and their possible origin in positive ground flashes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 87(C13), 11203-11214. https://doi.org/10.1029/jc087ic13p11203

• Dwyer, J. R., & Uman, M. A. (2014). The physics of lightning. Physics Reports, 534(4), 147-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physrep.2013.09.004

• Esa, M. R. M., Ahmad, M. R., Cooray, V., & Esa, M. R. M. (2014). Occurrence of narrow bipolar pulses between negative return strokes in tropical thunderstorms. In 2014 International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP) (pp. 1141-1142). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICLP.2014.6973297

• Fisher, R. J., & Uman, M. A. (1972). Measured electric field risetimes for first and subsequent lightning return strokes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 77(3), 399-406. https://doi.org/10.1029/jc077i003p00399

• Haddad, M. A., Rakov, V. A., & Cummer, S. A. (2012). New measurements of lightning electric fields in Florida: Waveform characteristics, interaction with the ionosphere, and peak current estimates. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres, 117(D10), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD017196

• Hazmi, A., Emeraldi, P., Hamid, M. I., & Takagi, N. (2017). Research on positive narrow bipolar events in Padang. In 2016 3rd International Conference on Information Technology, Computer, and Electrical Engineering (ICITACEE) (pp. 156-159). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICITACEE.2016.7892429

• Hazmi, A., Hendri, Z., Mulyadi, S., Tesal, D., Wang, D., & Takagi, N. (2013). Characteristics of electric field change preceding negative first return stroke produced by preliminary breakdown. In 2013 International Conference on Information Technology and Electrical Engineering (ICITEE) (pp. 322-325). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICITEED.2013.6676261

• Heidler, F., & Hopf, C. (1998). Measurement results of the electric fields in cloud-to-ground lightning in nearby Munich, Germany. IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 40(4), 436-443. https://doi.org/10.1109/15.736204

• Hojo, J., Ishii, M., Kawamura, T., Suzuki, F., & Funayama, R. (1985). The fine structure in the field change produced by positive ground strokes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 90(D4), 6139-6143. https://doi.org/10.1029/JD090iD04p06139

• Krider, E. P., Leteinturier, C., & Willett, J. C. (1996). Submicrosecond fields radiated during the onset of first return strokes in cloud-to-ground lightning. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres, 101(D1), 1589-1597. https://doi.org/10.1029/95JD02998

• Lin, Y. T., Uman, M. A., Tiller, J. A., Brantley, R. D., Beasley, W. H., Krider, E. P., & Weidman, C. D. (1979). Characterization of lightning return stroke electric and magnetic fields from simultaneous two-station measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research, 84(C10), 6307-6314. https://doi.org/10.1029/JC084iC10p06307

• Master, M. J., & Uman, M. A. (1984). Lightning induced voltages on power lines: Theory. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, PAS-103(9), 2502-2518. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPAS.1984.318405

• Mehranzamir, K., Afrouzi, H. N., Abdul-Malek, Z., Nawawi, Z., Sidik, M. A. B., & Jambak, M. I. (2019). Hardware installation of lightning locating system using time difference of arrival method. In 2019 International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (ICECOS) (pp. 29-34). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICECOS47637.2019.8984497

• Nag, A., & Rakov, V. A. (2014). Parameters of electric field waveforms produced by positive lightning return strokes. IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 56(4), 932-939. https://doi.org/10.1109/TEMC.2013.2293628

• Ohring, M. (1998). Electronic devices: How they operate and are fabricated. In Reliability and Failure of Electronic Materials and Devices (pp. 37-105). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012524985-0/50003-9

• Quick, M. G., & Krider, E. P. (2014). Optical emission and peak electromagnetic power radiated by return strokes in rocket-triggered lightning. In 2014 International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP) (pp. 2011-2015). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICLP.2014.6973459

• Rakov, V. A. (2013). The physics of lightning. Surveys in Geophysics, 34(6), 701-729. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-013-9230-6

• Rakov, V. A., & Uman, M. A. (2003). Lightning: Physics and effects. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1256/wea.168/03

• Rojas, H., Cruz, A., & Cortés, C. (2017). Characteristics of lightning-generated electric fields measured in the Bogotá Savanna, Colombia. Revista UIS Ingenierías, 16(2), 243-252. https://doi.org/10.18273/revuin.v16n2-2017022

• Santamaría, F., Gomes, C., & Roman, F. (2006, September 18-22). Comparison between the signatures of lightning electric field measured in Colombia and that in Sri Lanka. In Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Lightning Protection (pp. 254-256), Kanazawa, Japan. https://doi.org/10.14936/ieiej.27.226

• Shivalli, S. (2016). Lightning phenomenon, effects and protection of structures from lightning. IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSR-JEEE), 11, 44-50. https://doi.org/10.9790/1676-1103014450

• Sokol, Z., & Popová, J. (2021). Differences in cloud radar phase and power in co-and cross-channel-indicator of lightning. Remote Sensing, 13(3), Article 503. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13030503

• Sonnadara, U., Cooray, V., & Fernando, M. (2006). The lightning radiation field spectra of cloud flashes in the interval from 20 kHz to 20 MHz. IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 48(1), 234-239. https://doi.org/10.1109/TEMC.2006.870692

• Trewin, B. (Ed.). (2014). The climates of the Tropics, and how they are changing. Academic Press.

• Tushabe, F. (2020). Comparison of COVID-19 severity between tropical and non-tropical countries. International Journal of Infection, 7(3), e104142. https://doi.org/10.5812/iji.104142

• Wang, Y., Lu, G., Shi, T., Ma, M., Zhu, B., Liu, D., Peng, C., & Wang, Y. (2021). Enhancement of cloud-to-ground lightning activity caused by the urban effect: A case study in the beijing metropolitan area. Remote Sensing, 13(7), Article 1228. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13071228

• Weidman, C. D., & Krider, E. P. (1978). The fine structure of lightning return stroke wave forms. Journal of Geophysical Research, 83(C12), 6239-6247. https://doi.org/10.1029/jc083ic12p06239

• Weidman, C. D., & Krider, E. P. (1980). Submicrosecond risetimes in lightning return-stroke fields. Geophysical Research Letters, 7(11), 955-958. https://doi.org/10.1029/GL007i011p00955

• Willett, J. C., & Krider, E. P. (2000). Rise times of impulsive high-current processes in cloud-to-ground lightning. IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, 48(9), 1442-1451. https://doi.org/10.1109/8.898779

• Wooi, C. L., Abdul-Malek, Z., Ahmad, N. A., & El Gayar, A. I. (2016). Statistical analysis of electric field parameters for negative lightning in Malaysia. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 146, 69-80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2016.05.007

• Wooi, C. L., Abdul-Malek, Z., Ahmad, N. A., & Mokhtari, M. (2015). Characteristic of preliminary breakdown preceding negative return stroke in Malaysia. In 2015 IEEE Conference on Energy Conversion (CENCON) (pp. 112-115). IEEE Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1109/CENCON.2015.7409523

• Yusop, N., Ahmad, M. R., Abdullah, M., Zainudin, S. K., Nor, W. N. A. W. M., Alhasa, K. M., Esa, M. R. M., Sabri, M. H. M., Suparta, W., Gulisano, A. M., & Cooray, V. (2019). Cloud-to-Ground lightning observations over the Western Antarctic region. Polar Science, 20, 84-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2019.05.002